Qasida Burdah - poem preislamic

Qasida Burdah este una din cele mai frumoase poeme preislamice. Mai este cunoscuta si sub denumirea de Qasida Pelerinei lui Mohamed. Legenda spune ca atunci cand poetul s-a dus la profetul Mohamed si i-a recitat poezia, acesta i-a oferit pelerina SA in semn de pretuire. Al doilea videoclip este in limba engleza.

sunt studenta la facultatea de  limbi si literaturi straine sectia engleza araba. 

Arabic loanwords in English Language

Arab culture and civilization in

English Language

Introduction

             As  an  introduction  let’s  remember  what  linguistics and comparative linguistics means  and  which  is  its  domain  of interest.

·         Linguistics   - is the scientific study of the nature, structure and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics and pragmatics.

·         Comparative linguistics   - is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages in order to   establish their historical relatedness, to study the loanwords from a language to another language through direct or indirect contact or assimilated words.

           Our   theme   for   this   presentation   is   mainly   “The Arabic loanwords in English Language”.

·         Loanwords – are the words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different   language   ( the  source  language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing which refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. They simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in. Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between the two language communities and the  borrowing  of  words can go in both directions, but usually there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other.

 

Surprisingly or not, you the non-Arabic speaker already speak some Arabic!

            Do   you  recognize the words  like  alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alchemy, camel,  candy, coffee,  hazard,   soda,  syrup, sugar,  zero and many more?  They are Arabic loanwords.

            Arabic language is a major source of vocabulary for many languages with which it has come into direct or indirect contact over the centuries.  Many European languages like Spanish, Portuguese, Maltese and Cypriot Greek as well some Asian languages like Persian, Urdu, Bengali, Turkish and others have been influenced by the Arabic language.

           As a brief example we can say that the Spanish language has absorbed the largest proportion of words, around 4.000, due its direct contact with the Islamic civilization and the English language has absorbed around 3.000 loanwords in addition to 5.000 derivatives.

          Starting   with   the   Middle  Ages  when the Islam spread through the Western Europe, the Arabic language was considered “the Lingua Franca” and the language of scholarship, literature, science and trade, not only in Andalusia but across the world. 

Arabic loanwords in English language

                 Arabic language is classified as a Semitic language. It belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. Arabic is generally spoken as a first language in the Arabian Peninsula, most of the Middle East region, and North Africa. Also it is used for the specific purposes of Islamic practice, including prayers, invocations, greetings and other formulating expression by all Muslims around the world. Arabic is the language of the Quran, and anyone who pretends to be a good Muslim must learn Arabic language, regardless of their native or first language.

               If we want to analyze the Arabic loanwords in English language will be easier to divide the periods in two parts.  The first part I will name “the peaceful period“   and   the   second part I will name “the modern time, influenced by the   media and wars in the Middle East and Afghanistan”.  And by doing this division I want to point out how some Arabic words are loosing their proper meaning in the context of a modern world marked by wars and misunderstanding  of Arabic language and why not, inimical journalists and media which has the power to manipulate the public opinions and be an opinion forming.  
 

In peace time, whether through contact that includes travels, trade and economic exchange or through scholarly activities, the English language has expanded its vocabulary tremendously. The relation between the European continent and the Arabic speaking regions  goes  back  in  history  to  ancient  and medieval times. The contact has taken a variety of forms and degrees of intensity over the centuries. In the eighth century A.D., following the rise of Islam, Arabic  influence  and culture spread in North Africa and  by the eleven and twelfth centuries, its impact reached parts of southern Europe (Spain- Andalusia). That early contact resulted in many Arabic loans into the Greek, Latin and other Romance languages. Many of those words found their way into the English language.

 

Do you remember that I said you already speak some Arabic? Let’s see now some examples!

Admiral  –  “Amir al-bihar” – which means “commander of the see”. An English under

                 King Edward III  (14^th century) was “Amyrel of the see”.

Alchemy  - “al-kimiya” first attested in about the year 1140 in an Arabic-to-Latin

                   Translation by Plato Tiburtinus.

Alcohol  - “al-khol” which entered Latin in the 13^th century  and  the  meaning  was any  

                finely   ground  and  sifted  materials. But later in the 16^th century we found the meaning as any          

               distillation   methods.

Alembic - “al-anbiq” which means “distillation apparatus”.

Algebra – “al-jabr”  which means “completed or restoring broken parts”. The

               Mathematical sense originates from the title of the book “al-kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr waal-muqabala” (the compendious book on Calculation by Completing and Balancing)

by the 19-th century mathematician  Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi.

Arsenal – “dar as-sina’a” which means “house of manufacturing”.

Assassin – “hashashin”, the nickname for the Nizari branch of Iamailism in the Levant the Crusades era.

 

Coffee – “qahwa”. Café Mocha, a type of coffee, is named after the city of Mocha,

               Yemen, which was an early coffee exporter.

Cotton – “qutun”.

Damask – “dimasq / Damascus” and referred to goods originally made in the city of

                Damascus.

Hashish – “hashish” which literal meaning is ‘dried herb”.

Lemon -  “limun” which means “any citrus fruit”.

Macrame -  “miqrama” which means “embroidered veil”.

Mohair – “al-mokhayyar”which means “good-quality cloth made of goat hair”.

Sugar – “sukkar”

Syrup / Sherbet/  Sorbet – “sharab” which means “a drink”.

Talisman – “tilsam” which means “an incantation”.

Zero – “sifr”.

 

  In the modern time, influenced by the media and wars in the Middle East and Afghanistan  hundreds of words have found their way into the English language.  Words like “camouflage” and “barrage” came from French, during WW I, and words like “blitz” and “flak” were added via Germania, during the WW II. But in the late 1990s and early 2000s because the on-going war in Iraq, another relatively new loans, specific to the culture and politics of the region, found their way into the English language.  But  all  those  new  Arabic  loanwords, because of the media and some  inimical journalists who didn’t understand the Arabic language, have changed their literary meanings.

               Did you hear words like Taliban, Jihad, al-Qeda, Jihadis(ts), Sunni(s), Shia’a(s), Fedayeen Saddam,

 Al-Jazeera,  Mujahedeen,  Madrasa(s)? I’m more than sure you did!  

             Well, they are loans that found their way into English during the past decade or so. Most of the loans belong to the Islamic culture or came to be associated with Islam, even if their literal meaning is not related to Islam.

             Now let’s make an imaginative exercise.  When you hear all these words, which is your perception?  If I’m right, you are thinking of negative things like war, bombing, kidnappings, car bombs, suicide bombs and some other atrocity.  Why ?  Because of the media and journalists and their good job, but also because of their BIG ignorance in knowing the Arab Language.

 

             Do you really want to know the real literary meaning of all these words? Or you are satisfied with the meaning other people serve you for granted!

           Oh! I’m happy you want to know the real meanings!

           Than let’s explain it.

 

Taliban    -   is a derived from   Arabic word “Talib”, which literary  mean “Student”, usually applied for someone who is enrolled in a post-elementary school or a person conducting research in a particular field. However, in the context of the current war that literal meaning is lost. The word is now associated with the “Taliban Movement” that eventually developed into a radical Islamic party in Afghanistan, which took power following the withdrawal of the Soviet troops. So, in English language the word became synonymous with Islamic extremism and radicalism. 

 

Jihad  -   or its other related forms like jaahada, yajaahidu, mujtahid, mujahid and ijihad came from the verb root JaHaDa which means “strived for self spiritual, struggle to acquire perfection in faith and self-improvement, including hard work in earning a living and help others”. But in the context of the current war, the world “Jihad” has lost its primary meanings and developed strong negative connotations, similar to “holy war”  which  suppose  to mobilize innocent humans to fight and die in a conflict that could be resolved through peaceful negotiations.

 

Mujahedeen   - has been  replaced by Jihadi, Jihadist, probably because the word seems to evoke a different image associated with the role of mujahedeen against the Russian in the last days of the cold war. Both words are synonyms, and the later is probably perceived more negatively than the former, at least in the context of the current war.

 

Fadayeen Saddam  -  its literary meaning is “a person who offer himself  for another, a devotee”, but in the context of the current war have been changed in a meaning of a paramilitary force that apparently included the most reliable and loyal soldier to Saddam Hussein and his regime.   

Al-Jazeera  -  literally “the island or the peninsula”, but in the actual context ranked in the top negative perception, probably because somehow all of the kidnappings, hostages and al-Qaeda’s tapes first appear in that media outlet. Therefore, for many people, it became associated with those horrible images.

Madrasa   -  means “school” in Arabic language. In its general sense, it refers to any pre-college educational institution, public or private, that offers instructions in general education including religion. In the context of the current war in Iraq, the word is sometimes used in a general manner to refer to an institution for radical Islamic training which gives the impression that “all madrasas” are institutions of Islamic indoctrination and extremism which is not what the word means in most, if not all, Arabic speaking countries where it simply means “school

          It, therefore, remains to be seen whether the negative perceptions of the connotations associated with those Arabic loans changed or remain the same after the war ends and some stability is achieved in Iraq???????!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

             

 

Alfabetul arab si caligrafia

               ALFABETUL ARAB SI CALIGRAFIA   

                                                                                                                   

          Limba araba  face parte din grupul limbilor semite si este mijlocul de exprimare cotidiana pentru sute de milioane de persoane.  Se vorbeste in tarile din nordul Africii  - Mauritania, Algeria Maroc, Tunisia, Libya, Egipt , Sudan, Somalia dar si in Djibouti si Insulele Comore  – in oriental mijlociu respectiv Peninsula Arabica in tari ca Liban, Syria, Iraq, Iordania, Arabia Saudita, Kuwait, Palestina, Bahrain, Qatar, U.A.E., Oman, Yemen dar si in orientul indepartat unde sunt importante comunitati de musulmani.

           Limba araba face parte parte din familia afro-asiatica, ramura semitica care a conservat mult mai multe particularitati ale semitei comune – inclusiv inflexiunea – decat ebraica sau celelalte limbi surori (asiro-babiloniana, aramaica, sud-araba, etiopiana sau feniciana), care sunt de fapt dialecte desprinse dintr-o limba comuna si anume URSEMITISCH.

          Alfabetul arab isi are originea in alfabetul nord-semitic si este derivat dintr-o forma cursiva a alfabetului Nabateean, derivat la randul sau din cel Aramaic – din care prin intermediul fenician s-au dezvoltat si alfabetele europene (grec, latin si chirilic). Fenicienii au fost primii care au folosit o scriere exclusiv alfabetica, inspirata din hieroglifele egiptene.  Dar dupa cum spun specialistii din domeniu intre cele doua scrieri – cea egiptena hieroglifica si cea feniciana alfabetica exista o bresa umpluta astazi de descoperirea scrierii sinaitice.  Semitii sinaitici au preluat de ex. hieroglifa pentru “cap de bou” – fara a tine seama de pronuntia egipteana – si au numit-o “cap de bou” in propria limba adica – ‘aleph – care a devenit mai tarziu litera ” ‘alif” in alfabetul limbii arabe de astazi. Apoi pe principiul acronimiei[i], au folosit acest semn pentru sunetul “a”.  Acelasi lucru au facut si in cazul semnului care nota cuvantul “casa” numindu-l “beth” si utilizandu-l pentru sunetul “b” s.a.m.d..  Asadar originea sinaitica a alfabetului explica modul in care a putut fi transmis, pe de o patre in Arabia de Sud, unde s-a dezvoltat independent si era utilizat de mineeni probabil inca din anul 1200 i.e.n., si pe de alta parte modul in care a ajuns in nord, pe tarmul fenicienilor. Alfabetul a urmat calea comertului cu turcoaz, vandut de arabi fenicienilor, tot asa cum ulterior a urmat cale comertului dintre fenicieni si greci, pentru a da nastere tuturor alfabetelor europene. Inscriptiile descoperite in zona  Safa din Hawran care dateaza cel putin din anul 100 e.n. ca si inscriptiile dedanite si lihyanite de la  al-‘Ula, din nordul Hijazului din sec. VII – III i.e.n – in asa numita PROTOARABA – precum si scrierile  tamudice din aceeasi regiune , in special din al-Higr si Tayma ( din sec. Vi.e.n – IV e.n. ) stau marturie despre unele sisteme derivate din alfabetul sud-arab, dar limba tuturor acestor inscriptii este araba de nord, doar putin diferita de araba clasica. In peninsula Sinai, locul in care au fost  primite  “cele 10 porunci”, s-au descoperit poate cele mai vechi inscriptii alfabetice ce provin de la Sarabit al-Hadim si dateaza aproximativ din anul 1850 i.e.n , fiind anterioare cu aproape opt secole inscriptiei lui Hiram de la Gubayl (anticul Gebal), descoperita de Montet si considerate una dintre cele mai vechi inscriptii feniciene,  care sunt pastrate la muzeul din Cairo.  O alta inscriptie veche si foarte importanta care provine de la al- Namara, din estul Hawramului, si care dateaza din anul 328 e.n. este epitaful de pe mormantul  lui Imru' al-Qais, rege lahmid din Hira, dar si un mare poet. Scrierea utilizata in acest epitaf este o versiune a caracterelor nabateene, cu multe elemente de tranzitie spre ulterioara scriere nord-araba, in special in ceea ce priveste legatura dintre litere.  Revenind la scrierea cursiva nabateeana , aceasta a fost folosita incepand cu sec. al-III-lea e.n.  pentru notarea limbii nord-arabe, araba Coranului si araba moderna. Mai exact, aceasta devine scrierea rotunjita Nashi, spre deosebire de scrierea unghiulara numita Kufi (kufica) – scriere care poarta numele orasului Kufa ( desi apare inaintea intemeierii orasului Kufa) – scriere utilizata pentru primele documente oficiale, pentru  monumente si monede dar aproape in exclusivitate pentru scrierea Coranului. Incepand cu sec. IV si V e.n. acest alfabet este folosit de toate triburile arabe de la Hirah si ‘Anbar, el patrunzand si in Higaz, inclusiv la tribul Qurays – tribul Profetului Mohamad – unde a fost introdus de catre Harb bin ‘Umayyah.  Liniile rectilinii (al-musnad) reflecta un proces indelungat de dezvoltare. Acest alfabet, asemenea altor sisteme semite de scriere ,  era compus numai din consoane 29 la numar, cu o scriere de la dreapta la stanga.  Alfabetul arab s-a dezvoltat cu precadere, incepand cu sec al-VII-lea, odata cu fixarea in scris a textului sacru al religiei islamice, Coranul. Intr-o prima faza, textul Coranului a fost notat intr-un ductus consonatic, defectiv, in care acelasi semn graphic reprezenta mai multe consoane, iar vocalele scurte nu erau marcate, ceea ce ingreuna lectura si chiar intelegerea textului. Ca urmare a acestui lucru , ‘Abu-l-‘Aswad ad-Du’ali (m. 688) a introdus un sistem construit din puncte colorate, prin care se indicau vocalele scurte. Catre anul 700, Califul ‘umayyad  ‘Abdu-l-Malik, porunceste sa fie facuta diferentierea consoanelor in scris.  Asa ca Al-Halil bin ‘Ahmad al-Farahidi (m. 786) a inlocuit sistemul de notare a vocalelor scurte folosit de ‘Abu-l-‘Aswad ad-Du’ali, printr-un alt system ce cuprinde sase semen:

Trei pentru vocale scurte:

-          Fatha  pentru “a”                       

-          Damma pentru “u                    

-          Karsa pentru “i”.                        

Unul pentru a indica absenta vocalei dupa o consoana:

-          Sukun                           

Unul pentru a indica prelungirea vocalei “a”;

-          Madda                            

Unul pentru dublarea consoanei:

-          Sadda                 

Acest sistem s-a impus in mod exclusiv din sec. XI si este folosit si astazi.

           Comparativ cu alfabetul latin, alfabetul arab nu are litere mari ( majuscule), dar nici mici (minuscule) . Nu exista litere specific de tipar ori de mana, ci numai stiluri de scriere diferite. In schimb, deoarece literele se leaga intre ele, cu cateva exceptii ( si acestea sunt literele waw, z, r, d, dh,alif), au forme diferite in functie de relatia lor cu celelalte litere din compozitia cuvantului.  Practic literele arabe au patru forme de scriere  - litera izolata, litera de inceput de cuvant, litera mediala si litera finala.

            Coranul este singura “carte” total vocalizata pentru a evita erorile de citire. De asemenea mai sunt vocalizate si cartile destinate invaratii limbii arabe de catre straini, abecedarele, si Biblia. In textele obisnuite vocalele scurte nu apar decat atunci cand este necesar pentru a evita confuziile de citire intre cuvintele care au acelasi schelet consonatic, dar se diferentiaza prin vocale.

             Alfabetul arab, cu unele adaptari, se foloseste, fie in exclusivitate, fie in paralel cu alte alfabete si pentru notarea altor limbi din Asia precum persana(farsi), kurda, pashto, urdu, malaeza, dar si a unor limbi din Africa precum swahili, hausa sau berbera. Printre alte limbi care au folosit alfabetul arab sa mai amintim si turco-osmana pana in 1928 si azera pana in 1924.

CALIGRAFIA      ARABA

          Caligrafia Islamica este practica artistica a scrisului de mana si forma principala de expresie a esteticii in culturile islamice, in special in contextul religios. Este o arta aparuta in sec. islamice al-II-lea sau al – III-lea, devenind in scurt timp cea mai apreciata si prestigioasa arta, care consimtita de Coran (68:1, 96:4) isi propune sa perpetueze cuvantul lui Dumnezeu, avand un rol important in evolutia limbii arabe.

           Caligrafia araba nu s-a demodat asa cum s-a intamplat cu caligrafia europeana, ci este inca socotita de catre arabi ca fiind o forma majora de arta,  caligrafii fiind foarte respectati in societate.

al-Rayhani (m.834)este considerat unul dintre parintii caligrafiei arabe, care a trait in timpul lui al- Ma'mun si care a creat stilul care ii poarta numele, ibn-Muqla (886-940), vizirul abbasid  caruia califul al-Raadi i-a taiat mana dreapta, dar care a continuat sa scrie elegant cu mana stanga, sau chiar legandu-si condeiul de ciotul mainii drepte si ibn-al-Bawwab. (m.1022 sau 1032) fiul usierului salii de audiere a petitiilor de la Bagdad si inventatorul stilului muhaqqaqi. Alt reprezentant de seama a fost Yaqut al-Musta'simi , caligraful ultimului calif abbasid. Stilul yaquti ii poarta numele.

              Caligrafia araba, persana si otomana se asociaza cu motive abstracte pe peretii si plafonul moscheilor, dar si pe hartie. Deasemenea i se da si forma concreta cum ar fi cea a unei plante, a unui animal sau a unei corabii.

Stiluri de caligrafie geometrice

In caligrafia araba sunt cunoscute doua  stiluri :

1.      Stilul Kufi – un stil mai curat, geometric cu un ritm vizibil si accentuat pe liniile orizontale, vocalele fiind marcate uneori cu puncte rosii si consoanele sunt evidentiate prin linii scurte pentru a face textul mai usor de citit. Acest stil mai apare sip e monezile vechi.

2.      Stilul Maghribi – in variant Andaluza este un stil mai rigid al stilului Kufi, cu mai multe linii curbe.

Substiluri de caligrafie geometrica:

·         Stilul Kufi inflorat- cu litere geomrtrice associate cu elemente stilistica vegetale;

·         Stilul Kufi geometric – cu litere asezate in forme geometrice complexe, bi-dimensionale, scopul fiind decoratiunea si nu cititul.

  Stiluri de caligrafie cursive

   In caligrafia cursiva deosebim sase stiluri:

1.      Stilul  Naskh  -   aparut in sec. X , mai usor de scris si de citit, folosita in corespondenta;

2.      Stilul  Ulu  -   stil monumental si energic cu vertical prelungite folosit de mameluci de-a lungul sec. XIV – XV. Mai este folosit si azi in Turcia, dar intr-o forma mai transformata si rafinata.

3.      Stilul   Tawqi' -  aparut in timpul califatului abbasid si folosit pentru semnarea actelor oficiale, prezentand vertical prelungite si curbe lrgi ce depasesc linia de scris, rar  folosit;

4.       Stilul   Rigani  -  o versiune in miniature a stilului  …………………… . Este o scriere folosita des si in ziua de azi.

5.      Stilul  Mudaqqaqi  -   o scriere ampla, alerta,cu terminatiile literelor prelungite, iar curbele subliniaza textul;

6.      Stilul  Ki'ani  -  o versiune in miniature a stilului mudaqqaq.

                                

       Incepand cu sec XIV sunt folosite si alte stiluri cursive pe teritoriile otomane si persane cum ar fi Nasta'liq,Shikasteh, Diwani, Diwani al-Jali, Bihari si Ruq'ah. 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Cele sase stiluri de scrieri  cursive (al-aqlam as-sitteh ) au fost introduse de ibn Muqla             

(m.939) si ulterior rafinate de succesorii sai ibn al-Bawwab (m.1022) si Yaqut al-Muctacsimi (m.1298)

Instrumente si suporturi grafice

     Instrumentul traditional este   qalemul  facut din bambus sau trestie uscata.  Mai tarziu apare, sub infuenta chineza , peria din par de cal.

      Cerneala este colorata si aleasa astfel incat intensitatea ei sa poata varia diferit creeind un efect dinamic.

       Suporturile cele mai utilizate erau papirusul si pergamentul, dar o data cu aparitia hartiei s-a produs o adevarata revolutie a caligrafiei, iar mai tarziu apare caligrafia pe material textile.

        Pe langa caligrafie s-au mai dezvoltat in relatie directa cu cartea sfanta si alte arte precum ornamentarea colorata, inluminura, legarea cartilor. La sfarsitul perioadei abbaside apare si arta decorarii  cartilor si a inluminarii Coranului, care va cunoaste o perioada de glorie in timpul selgiukizilor si a mamelucilor. Poleitorul (                              ) era aproape la fel de apreciat ca un caligraf. Aplicata initial pe paginile Coranului, aceasta arta s-a extins apoi si asupra manuscriselor profane.

       Caligrafia este astazi poate singura arta care are atat creatori crestini cat si musulmani la Cairo, Beirut, Damasc si Istanbul.

                                                         

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[i] Acronimie= procedeu de formare a cuvintelor prin abrevieri

Qalemul                              

instrument de                

scris din

bambus

                                                                         

 Qalemul din trestie

      uscata

                                         

 Modele de scriere caligrafica cursiva in forma de animale si fructe     

        

                                                                              

     

     

    

Model de scriere geometrica incadrata intr-un romb in stilul Kufi 

 Model de scriere caligrafica stilul Ta’liq     

 

Model de scriere stilul Diwani         

 

 

Model de scriere stilul Ruq’ah   (foaie)

               

Diverse lucrari caligrafice;

                         

http://islamulazi.ro